Reading Text and Conclusion⚓︎

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我用到的Prompt(回答内容有删减)

Now we will come to next Chapter: {your chapter name}. You must forget the pdf I gave you earlier. Now read the PDF I give you now. r. Please Summarize this PDF document in a bullet point outline. You must contain main philosophers/scholars and their opinions and other people's comment(if any). Please Make a markdown table of your answer above.

Tradition and the Individual Talent⚓︎

Author(s): T. S. Eliot

Source: Perspecta , 1982, Vol. 19 (1982), pp. 36-42

Central Idea:⚓︎

The concept of "tradition" is crucial for a poet to develop their individual talent fully
A poet must have a "historical sense" and be aware of the entire literary tradition, seeing it as a simultaneous order
A new work of art modifies and gets integrated into the existing order of literary works

Writer's Opinions:⚓︎

Mere novelty or originality should not be the aim of a poet
A poet's most individual parts may be those where they are most connected to the past poets/tradition
Poetry is not the expression of a poet's personality, but an escape from personality
The poet's mind is a catalytic medium that combines ordinary emotions into new, impersonal art emotions

Purpose of the Text:⚓︎

To redefine the role of tradition and its relationship with individual talent in poetry
To challenge the Romantic idea of poetry as an expression of the poet's personal emotions
To propose an "impersonal theory of poetry" where the focus shifts from the poet to the poem itself
To argue for judging poetry based on its relation to the entire literary tradition rather than just novelty

Overall, Eliot makes a case for tradition being essential for great poetry, and the poet needing to transcend their individual personality to create impersonal, objective works of art that engage with the entire literary heritage. The text aims to provide a new theoretical framework for understanding and evaluating poetry.

以下内容主要是对书《A Reader’s Guide to Contemporary Literary Theory, Fifth edition》部分章节的总结，作者RAMAN SELDEN。

Russian formalism and Bakhtin School⚓︎

Russian Formalism Overview:
Emphasis on exploring the literary nature of texts.
Rejected late Romantic poetics for a more empirical reading approach.
Distinguished from Anglo-American New Criticism by a stronger focus on method and establishing a 'scientific' basis for literature theory.
Key Concepts in Russian Formalism:
Literature as a special use of language.
Defamiliarization: Making the familiar strange to prolong the perception process.
Distinction between 'story' (fabula) and 'plot' (sjuzet).
The concept of 'motivation' in narrative theory.
Shift from a focus on literary devices to the function of these devices within the text's system.
Key Figures in Russian Formalism:
Viktor Shklovsky: Concept of defamiliarization.
Roman Jakobson: Development of structuralist type formalism.
Petr Bogatyrev, Yury Tynyanov, and Boris Eikhenbaum: Important contributions in the early phase of formalism.
Bakhtin School:
Focus on language as a social phenomenon.
Emphasis on the dialogic nature of literature.
Concept of 'Carnival': A liberating and subversive use of dialogic forms.
Polyphonic (dialogic) vs. Monologic in literature.
Important Concepts from Bakhtin School:
Heteroglossia: The presence of multiple social voices in discourse.
Mikhail Bakhtin's study on Dostoevsky and Rabelais.
Influence and Legacy:
Formalism’s shift to a structuralist approach.
The impact on later theories, including Marxist criticism and poststructuralism.
Russian Formalism and the Bakhtin School’s contribution to understanding the dynamic relationship between literature and society.

And here is a markdown table summarizing the key philosophers/scholars and their opinions:

Scholar/Group	Contributions and Opinions
Viktor Shklovsky	Introduced the concept of defamiliarization.
Roman Jakobson	Advanced structuralist type formalism; influential in narrative theory.
Bakhtin School	Focused on dialogic nature of literature and social aspects of language.
Mikhail Bakhtin	Explored polyphonic (dialogic) form in literature, particularly in Dostoevsky's works.

Structuralist theory⚓︎

Basic Concepts of Structuralism:
Structuralism challenges traditional views of the author and literature.
Roland Barthes proposed that literature does not express the author's self but reassembles existing writings.
Linguistic Background:
Ferdinand de Saussure's work laid the foundation with concepts like langue (language system) and parole (individual utterance).
Saussure's model of language based on signifiers and signifieds, rejecting the direct connection between words and things.
Development in Semiotics:
Yury Lotman, Maria Corti, and others developed structuralism with a focus on semiotics.
Differentiation between types of signs by C. S. Peirce: iconic, indexical, and symbolic.
Structuralist Narratology:
Analysis of narrative structures, influenced by the work of Vladimir Propp and A.J. Greimas.
Tzvetan Todorov aimed for a general 'grammar' of literature.
Gérard Genette's exploration of narrative through story, discourse, and narration.
Metaphor and Metonymy:
Roman Jakobson's study of aphasia led to understanding literary style as leaning towards either metaphor or metonymy.
Structuralist Poetics:
Jonathan Culler's emphasis on reader's interpretation and 'literary competence'.
Acknowledgment that structuralist approaches may not capture the specificity of individual texts.
Structuralism's inclination towards a scientific understanding of literature.

And here's a markdown table summarizing the key scholars and their opinions:

Scholar	Contributions and Opinions
Roland Barthes	Literature as a reassembly of existing writings; author's "death".
Ferdinand de Saussure	Language as a system of signifiers and signifieds; langue vs. parole.
Yury Lotman	Developed structuralism in semiotics with a focus on literary texts.
Vladimir Propp	Analysis of narrative structures in folklore and fairy tales.
A.J. Greimas	Proposed a universal grammar of narrative.
Tzvetan Todorov	Sought a general grammar of literature; narrative syntax.
Gérard Genette	Explored narrative through story, discourse, and narration.
Roman Jakobson	Linked aphasia to literary metaphors and metonymy.
Jonathan Culler	Emphasized the importance of reader's interpretation in literature.

Reader-Oriented Theory⚓︎

Philosopher/Theorist	Opinion/Theory
Husserl	Phenomenology - consciousness and phenomena determine meaning
Heidegger	Situational approach, human consciousness projects the world
Gadamer	Literary meaning depends on historical situation of interpreter
Hans Robert Jauss	"Horizon of expectations", reception theory accounting for history
Wolfgang Iser	Text as potential actualized by reader through "concretization"
Stanley Fish	Affective stylistics focused on developing reader responses to sentences
Michael Riffaterre	Semiotics of poetry, deriving matrix from hypograms
David Bleich	Subjective criticism based on subjective reader psychology

Marxism in 20th West⚓︎

Overview of Marxist Criticism:
Long history, but mostly a 20th-century phenomenon.
Core principles involve the idea that social being determines consciousness and the goal of changing the world.
Marx's Concept of Base and Superstructure:
Culture and ideology are rooted in socio-economic relations.
Literature and art are part of the ideological superstructure influenced by material conditions.
Soviet Socialist Realism:
Official art method in the USSR focused on reflecting class relations and serving the working-class cause.
Aimed for popularity (narodnost’) and commitment (partinost’).
Lukács and Brecht Debate:
Lukács advocated for traditional realism, emphasizing social and historical representation in art.
Brecht favored modernist techniques, focusing on alienation and critical engagement with society.
The Frankfurt School – Adorno and Benjamin:
Critical theory approach, blending Marxist and Freudian elements.
Art as a resistance to dominant social forces, with a focus on the role of modernism.
Benjamin's Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction:
Explores how technology changes art's status and the implications for culture and society.
'Structuralist' Marxism – Goldmann, Althusser, Macherey:
Integration of structuralism with Marxist ideas, focusing on the role of structures in shaping culture and ideology.

Theorist	Contributions and Opinions
Karl Marx	Cultural and ideological systems are products of socio-economic conditions.
Soviet Socialist Realism	Emphasized class relations and working-class causes in art.
Georg Lukács	Advocated traditional realism, focusing on social and historical representation in literature.
Bertolt Brecht	Favored modernist techniques and alienation to engage critically with society.
The Frankfurt School	Critical theory blending Marxism and Freudian elements; art as resistance.
Walter Benjamin	Explored the impact of technology on art and culture.
'Structuralist' Marxists	Integrated structuralism with Marxism, focusing on cultural and ideological structures.

New-left Marxism⚓︎

Overview of New Left Marxism:
Emerged with the revival of Marxist criticism, influenced by the 1968 political and social upheavals and the influx of continental ideas.
Key Theorists:
Raymond Williams: Emphasized culture as a whole way of life, adopting Antonio Gramsci's concept of 'hegemony' to analyze power structures.
Terry Eagleton: Advocated for a science of criticism, viewing literature as a reworking of ideology and emphasizing the role of ideology in shaping perceptions and meanings.
Fredric Jameson: Focused on dialectical Marxist theories, analyzing the relationship between literature and society, and developing the concept of the political unconscious.
Williams' Approach:
Analyzed culture and signification in historical and materialist terms.
His later works explicitly identified as Marxist, emphasizing hegemony and the role of culture in class societies.
Eagleton's Contributions:
In "Criticism and Ideology," Eagleton redefined the relationship between literature and ideology.
Examined the ideological dimensions in the development of the English novel.
Shifted focus to Marxist revolutionary theory and critique of poststructuralism and postmodernism.
Jameson's Dialectical Criticism:
Explored the dialectical aspect of Marxist literary theories.
Argued for a narrative as an essential category of understanding reality.
Analyzed literary works in the context of their societal and historical conditions.
Jameson's "The Political Unconscious":
Introduced the concept of the political unconscious as a collective level of repression.
Proposed a method of analyzing texts across multiple horizons to uncover underlying historical contradictions.
Cultural Materialism:
Raymond Williams' influence led to the development of cultural materialism, an analytic approach focusing on the politicized historicist mode.
Eagleton's Shift in Focus:
Moved from a focus on the theoretical to emphasizing the political role of the intellectual.
Eagleton's later works examined various themes including aesthetics, Irish culture, and the political role of literature.
Jameson on Postmodernism:
In "Postmodernism or the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism," Jameson argued that postmodernism is a cultural dominant reflective of the global capitalist condition.

And here is a markdown table summarizing the key theorists and their opinions:

Theorist	Contributions and Opinions
Raymond Williams	Culture as a whole way of life; hegemony as a means of power analysis.
Terry Eagleton	Literature as a reworking of ideology; emphasis on the role of criticism in political struggle.
Fredric Jameson	Dialectical criticism; concept of the political unconscious; analysis of postmodernism and its ties to capitalism.

Poststructuralist Theory⚓︎

Emergence of Poststructuralism:
Originated in the late 1960s as an evolution of structuralism.
Critiques the scientific aspirations of structuralism.
Recognizes the instability of signification and language.

Philosopher	Key Opinions and Contributions
Saussure	Influence on language and signs; view of signifier/signified relationship
Bakhtin School	Criticized Saussure's language view; emphasized language's social context
Emile Benveniste	Distinction between histoire and discours
Michel Foucault	Explored discursive formations, relation to power and institutions
Louis Althusser	Introduced ideology in discourse theory; psychoanalytic elements
Roland Barthes	Criticized language as a transparent medium; playfulness in texts
Jacques Lacan	Formation of subjects; reinterpretation of Freud using linguistics
Julia Kristeva	Intersection of language, culture, and identity; intertextuality
Deleuze and Guattari	Concept of 'schizoanalysis'; liberation of desire
Jacques Derrida	Critique of logocentrism; instability of signs and language

Post modernism Theory⚓︎

Overview of Postmodernism:
Defined variously as a continuation of modernism, a radical break from it, or a new perspective on past literature.
Jürgen Habermas' view: postmodernism departs from modernity’s unfinished projects (reason, equality, justice).
Challenges traditional narratives, indicating a shift to a world dominated by images and simulations.
Poststructuralism and Postmodernism:
Both movements reflect on similar issues: uncertainty of meaning, role of language, and cultural production.
Characteristics of Postmodernism:
Rejection of elitism and sophisticated experimentation found in modernism.
Emphasis on dehumanization, participation, anti-authoritarianism, and diffusion of ego.
Favoring open, discontinuous, improvisational structures over traditional aesthetics.
Prominent in art, architecture, media, and cultural studies.
Notable Postmodernist Authors:
Jorge Luis Borges, John Barth, Thomas Pynchon, Italo Calvino, Umberto Eco, Salman Rushdie, and John Fowles.
Theories of Jean Baudrillard:
Critique of modern capitalist societies, dominance of the signifier, and technology.
Concepts of ‘simulacra’ and ‘hyperreality’.
Works like "Simulacra et Simulation" explore a world dominated by images.
Theories of Jean-François Lyotard:
Questioned Marxism, seeking new philosophical and artistic terms.
Distinguished between the ‘figural’ and ‘discursive’.
In "The Postmodern Condition," argued against grand narratives, favoring smaller narratives.
Postmodernism and Marxism:
Fredric Jameson links postmodernism with late capitalism, emphasizing pastiche and loss of historical depth.
Terry Eagleton focuses on commodity fetishism and aesthetic categories.
Postmodern Feminisms:
Critique of academic neutrality and rationality claims, advocating for diverse and contested gender identities.
Key figures like Judith Butler and Donna Haraway explore gender as a construct and the cyborg as a post-gender figure.

And here is a markdown table summarizing the key philosophers and their opinions mentioned in the chapter:

Philosopher	Key Opinions and Contributions
Jean Baudrillard	Critique of modern capitalism, dominance of simulacra and hyperreality.
Jean-François Lyotard	Questioning grand narratives, emphasis on smaller narratives and the 'figural'.
Fredric Jameson	Postmodernism as a cultural logic of late capitalism, emphasizing pastiche.
Terry Eagleton	Focus on commodity fetishism, critique of postmodernism's depthlessness.
Judith Butler	Gender as a performative construct, challenging traditional feminist views.
Donna Haraway	Concept of the cyborg, challenging traditional gender and human-technology binaries.

Postcolonialist Theory⚓︎

Postcolonialism Origins and Influences:
Gained prominence with the consciousness shift post-Indian independence and Algerian struggles.
Draws on poststructuralism, particularly deconstruction.
Challenges ethnocentrism in Western thought and literature.
Edward Said:
Said's "Orientalism" critiques the Western depiction of Eastern cultures.
Focuses on how Western discourse constructs the 'Other'.
Advocates for a 'decentred consciousness' in criticism.
Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak:
Influenced by deconstruction, Marxism, and feminism.
Explores the position of 'the other', especially the 'subaltern', who cannot speak for themselves.
Emphasizes the complex identity of postcolonial subjects.
Homi K. Bhabha:
Utilizes poststructuralist approaches to study colonial discourse.
Concepts of 'hybridity' and 'ambivalence' in colonial subjects.
Analyzes the 'in-between' spaces of colonial discourse.
Race and Ethnicity in Postcolonial Studies:
Focuses on the experiences of migrant and diasporic people.
Studies of race and ethnicity critique concepts of fixed, unified national identity.
Emphasizes 'hybridity' and 'multiple identities'.
Feminist Perspectives in Postcolonialism:
Address 'double colonization' of women in colonial contexts.
Challenge essentialist views of identity in Western feminism.
Explore unique experiences of women in various postcolonial societies.

And here is a markdown table summarizing the key philosophers/scholars and their opinions:

Scholar	Contributions and Opinions
Edward Said	Critiqued Western depiction of Eastern cultures; advocated for 'decentred consciousness'.
Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak	Explored position of 'subaltern'; emphasized complex postcolonial identities.
Homi K. Bhabha	Analyzed colonial discourse; introduced concepts of 'hybridity' and 'ambivalence'.
Race and Ethnicity Scholars	Focused on experiences of migrant/diasporic people; critiqued fixed national identities.
Feminist Postcolonialists	Addressed 'double colonization' of women; challenged Western feminism's ethnocentrism.

Gay, Lesbian and Queer Theory⚓︎

Origins of Gay and Lesbian Theories:
Emerged from the radical movements of the 1960s, particularly the Gay Liberation Movement after the Stonewall Riot in 1969.
Goals included fighting discrimination and promoting pride in sexual identities.
Utilized strategies like consciousness-raising and coming out.
Development of Gay Theory and Criticism:
Focus on reclaiming literary texts and cultural phenomena.
Influences include Freud and Michel Foucault.
Exploration of power relations and the construction of sexuality.
Key Aspects of Lesbian Feminist Theory:
Response to heterosexism and sexism in both mainstream culture and Gay Liberation Movement.
Emphasis on concepts like compulsory heterosexuality, woman identification, and alternative women’s community.
Significant contributions from Monique Wittig, Judith Butler, and Adrienne Rich.
Emergence of Queer Theory:
Reclaiming of the term "queer" by political activists in the 1980s and 1990s.
Radical rethinking of subjectivity, sexuality, and representation.
Intersection with postmodern theories.
Focus on the politics of difference and marginality.
Influences include Ann Snitow, Carol Vance, Joan Nestle, and postcolonial critiques.
Key Figures in Queer Theory:
Judith Butler’s concept of performativity in gender and sexuality.
Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick’s exploration of homosociality and the impact of literary texts.
Queer Theory's Impact and Challenges:
Contesting binary oppositions and stable classifications of sexuality.
Response to the AIDS crisis and redefinition of erotic possibilities.
Collaboration with diverse groups, including sex workers, emphasizing class, economics, and inequality.

And here is a markdown table summarizing the key philosophers/advocates and their opinions:

Figure	Contributions and Opinions
Freud	His work influenced gay theory, but also normative effects.
Michel Foucault	Influence on gay theory, study of power and sexuality.
Monique Wittig	Lesbian feminist theory, critique of heterosexuality as an institution.
Judith Butler	Concept of performativity in gender and sexuality.
Adrienne Rich	Lesbian feminist theory, concept of woman identification.
Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick	Exploration of homosociality and impact on literary texts.